Happy Fourth of July from Thompson Equipment

"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. — That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, — That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness."

THOMAS JEFFERSON, Declaration of Independence

Steam Flow Metering and Measurement

For steam, energy is primarily contained in the latent heat and, to a lesser extent, the sensible heat of the fluid. The latent heat energy is released as the steam condenses to water. Additional sensible heat energy may be released if the condensate is further lowered in temperature. In steam measuring, the energy content of the steam is a function of the steam mass, temperature and pressure. Even after the steam releases its latent energy, the hot condensate still retains considerable heat energy, which may or may not be recovered (and used) in a constructive manner. The energy manager should become familiar with the entire steam cycle, including both the steam supply and the condensate return.

When compared to other liquid flow measuring, the measuring of steam flow presents one of the most challenging measuring scenarios. Most steam flowmeters measure a velocity or volumetric flow of the steam and, unless this is done carefully, the physical properties of steam will impair the ability to measure and define a mass flow rate accurately.

Steam is a compressible fluid; therefore, a reduction in pressure results in a reduction in density. Temperature and pressure in steam lines are dynamic. Changes in the system’s dynamics, control system operation and instrument calibration can result in considerable differences between actual pressure/temperature and a meter’s design parameters. Accurate steam flow measurement generally requires the measurement of the fluid’s temperature, pressure, and flow. This information is transmitted to an electronic device or flow computer (either internal or external to the flow meter electronics) and the flow rate is corrected (or compensated) based on actual fluid conditions.

The temperatures associated with steam flow measurement are often quite high. These temperatures can affect the accuracy and longevity of measuring electronics. Some measuring technologies use close-tolerance moving parts that can be affected by moisture or impurities in the steam. Improperly designed or installed components can result in steam system leakage and impact plant safety. The erosive nature of poor-quality steam can damage steam flow sensing elements and lead to inaccuracies and/or device failure.

The challenges of measuring steam can be simplified measuring the condensed steam, or condensate. The measuring of condensate (i.e., high-temperature hot water) is an accepted practice, often less expensive and more reliable than steam measuring. Depending on the application, inherent inaccuracies in condensate measuring stem from unaccounted for system steam losses. These losses are often difficult to find and quantify and thus affect condensate measurement accuracy.

Volumetric measuring approaches used in steam measuring can be broken down into two operating designs: 

1. Differential pressure measurement
2. Velocity measuring technologies 

DIFFERENTIAL

For steam three differential pressure flowmeters are highlighted: orifice flow meter, annubar flow meter, and spring-loaded variable area flow meter. All differential pressure flowmeters rely on the velocity-pressure relationship of flowing fluids for operation.

Differential Pressure – Orifice Flow Meter

Historically, the orifice flow meter is one of the most commonly used flowmeters to measure steam flow. The orifice flow meter for steam functions identically to that for natural gas flow. For steam measuring, orifice flow flowmeters are commonly used to monitor boiler steam production, amounts of steam delivered to a process or tenant, or in mass balance activities for efficiency calculation or trending.

Annular flowmeter (courtesy of
Badger Meter)

Differential Pressure – Annubar Flow Meter

The annubar flow meter (a variation of the simple pitot tube) also takes advantage of the velocity-pressure relationship of flowing fluids. The device causing the change in pressure is a pipe inserted into the steam flow.

Differential Pressure – Spring-Loaded Variable Area Flow Meter

The spring-loaded variable area flow meter is a variation of the rotameter. There are alternative configurations but in general, the flow acts against a spring-mounted float or plug. The float can be shaped to give a linear relationship between differential pressure and flow rate. Another variation of the spring-loaded variable area flow meter is the direct in-line variable area flow meter, which uses a strain gage sensor on the spring rather than using a differential pressure sensor.

VELOCITY

The two main type of velocity flowmeters for steam flow, turbine and vortex shedding, both sense some flow characteristic directly proportional to the fluid’s velocity.

Turbine Flow Meter

A multi-blade impellor-like device is located in, and horizontal to, the fluid stream in a turbine flow meter. As the fluid passes through the turbine blades, the impellor rotates at a speed related to the fluid’s velocity. Blade speed can be sensed by a number of techniques including magnetic pick-up, mechanical gears, and photocell. The pulses generated as a result of blade rotation are directly proportional to fluid velocity, and hence flow rate.

Velocity – Vortex-Shedding Flow Meter

Vortex flowmeter (courtesy of Badger Meter)

A vortex-shedding flow meter senses flow disturbances around a stationary body (called a bluff body) positioned in the middle of the fluid stream. As fluid flows around the bluff body, eddies or vortices are created downstream; the frequencies of these vortices are directly proportional to the fluid velocity.

For more information on any flow measurement requirement, visit Thompson Equipment (TECO) at http://www.teco-inc.com or call 800-528-8997 for immediate service,

Water Flow Metering and Measurement

Water flow measurement device comparison (click for larger view)

Water is commonly measured and sold in volumetric measurements, which allows for lower-cost metering options. The specific measurement technology chosen will depend on a number of factors including, but not limited to, current design, budget, accuracy requirements, resolution, minimum flow rate, potable versus non-potable (or at least filtered versus non-filtered water), range of flow rates, and maximum flow rate.

Volumetric water measurement can be broken down into three general operating designs:

• Positive displacement
• Differential pressure
• Velocity

Positive Displacement – Nutating-Disk Flow Meter

Nutating-disk flow meters are the most common meter technology used by water utilities to measure potable-water consumption for service connections up to 3-inch. The nutating-disk flow meter consists of a disk mounted on a spherically shaped head and housed in a measuring chamber. As the fluid flows through the meter passing on either side of the disk, it imparts a rocking or nutating motion to the disk. This motion is then transferred to a shaft mounted perpendicular to the disk. It is this shaft that traces out a circular motion – transferring this action to a register that records flow.

There are a variety of differential pressure devices useful for water metering; two of the more common devices include orifice flow meters and venturi flow meters.

Differential Pressure – Orifice Flow Meter

The orifice element is typically a thin, circular metal disk held between two flanges in the fluid stream. The center of the disk is formed with a specific-size and shape hole, depending on the expected fluid flow parameters (e.g., pressure and flow range). As the fluid flows through the orifice, the restriction creates a pressure differential upstream and downstream of the orifice proportional to the fluid flow rate. This differential pressure is measured and a flow rate calculated based on the differential pressure and fluid properties.

Differential Pressure – Venturi Flow Meter

The venturi flow meter takes advantage of the velocity-pressure relationship when a section of pipe gently converges to a small-diameter area (called a throat) before diverging back to the full pipe diameter. The benefit of the venturi flow meter over the orifice flow meter lies in the reduced pressure loss experienced by the fluid.

The velocity measurement technologies described in this section include the turbine flow meter, vortex-shedding flow meter, and ultrasonic flow meters.

Velocity – Turbine Flow Meter

A multi-blade impellor-like device is located in, and horizontal to, the fluid stream in a turbine flow meter. As the fluid passes through the turbine blades, the impellor rotates at a speed related to the fluid’s velocity. Blade speed can be sensed by a number of techniques including magnetic pick-up, mechanical gears, and photocell. The pulses generated as a result of blade rotation are directly proportional to fluid velocity, and hence flow rate.

Velocity – Vortex-Shedding Flow Meter

A vortex-shedding flow meter senses flow disturbances around a stationary body (called a bluff body) positioned in the middle of the fluid stream. As fluid flows around the bluff body, eddies or vortices are created downstream; the frequencies of these vortices are directly proportional to the fluid velocity.

Velocity – Ultrasonic Flow Meters

There are two different types of ultrasonic flow meters, transit-time and Doppler-effect. The two technologies use ultrasonic signals very differently to determine fluid flow and are best applied to different fluid applications. Transit-time ultrasonic flow meters require the use of two signal transducers. Each transducer includes both a transmitter and a receiver function. As fluid moves through the system, the first transducer sends a signal and the second receives it. The process is then reversed. Upstream and downstream time measurements are compared. With flow, sound will travel faster in the direction of flow and slower against the flow. Transit-time flow meters are designed for use with clean fluids, such as water.

Doppler-effect ultrasonic flow meters use a single transducer. The transducer has both a transmitter and receiver. The high-frequency signal is sent into the fluid. Doppler-effect flow meters use the principal that sound waves will be returned to a transmitter at an altered frequency if reflectors in the liquid are in motion. This frequency shift is in direct proportion to the velocity of the liquid. The echoed sound is precisely measured by the instrument to calculate the fluid flow rate.

Because the ultrasonic signal must pass through the fluid to a receiving transducer, the fluid must not contain a significant concentration of bubbles or solids. Otherwise the high frequency sound will be attenuated and too weak to traverse the distance to the receiver. Doppler-effect ultrasonic flow meters require that the liquid contain impurities, such as gas bubbles or solids, for the Doppler-effect measurement to work. One of the most attractive aspects of ultrasonic flow meters is they are non-intrusive to the fluid flow. An ultrasonic flow meter can be externally mounted to the pipe and can be used for both temporary and permanent metering.

For more information on any flow application, visit http://www.teco-inc.com or call (504) 833-6381.

Natural Gas Flow Metering and Measurement

Natural gas is a hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting primarily methane, but includes a host of other chemical components. Accurate natural gas flow measurement usually requires the measurement of the fluid’s temperature and pressure in addition to flow. Additional constraints on natural gas measurement may include the physical space available or possibly configuration and weight of the metering system. Some of the fluid metering technologies require specific lengths of pipe, both upstream and downstream of the meter for proper function.

Before any technology decisions are made, discussions with equipment vendors and/or design engineers are recommended to ensure proper technology selection and installation design.

Depending on the application, flow rate, installation access, and desired accuracy, there are a number of technology options for natural gas metering. In general, measurement of natural gas volumetric flow rate is represented in standard cubic feet per hour (scfh) or per minute (scfm). The actual mass of gas flowing past a point of measurement changes with its temperature and pressure. Density changes resulting from temperature and pressure differences can result in differences between the energy content of similar volumes of the gas. To equalize the effect of density variations when metering gas, conditions are referenced against standard temperature and pressure conditions, hence standard cubic feet (scf) instead of actual cubic feet (acf). Gas flowmeters must compensate for density differences between standard conditions and actual conditions to accurately define standard flow rates.

The most common volumetric gas metering devices fall into one of the following categories:

• Positive displacement
• Differential pressure
• Velocity 

In most applications, gas flowmeters are installed downstream of pressure regulation devices and the meters are then calibrated to that pressure. Natural gas meters may include options for temperature and pressure compensation.

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT

A positive displacement meter functions by the fluid physically displacing the measuring mechanism and this displacement becomes the metered value. Of relevancy to natural gas measurement, the two predominant technologies are the diaphragm meter (most common) and the rotary meter. In each case, the volume of gas for measurement physically impinges on a measuring element (flexible diaphragm or rotary blower) to increment a recording dial or other output. The primary advantage of positive displacement flow meters is there are no straight-run piping requirements to establish a flow pattern that can be accurately metered. The primary disadvantage of positive displacement meters is higher pressure drops experienced across the meter at peak flow rates.

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE

There are multiple types of differential pressure meters: orifice flow meter, venture flow meter, and annubar flow meter. All differential pressure meters rely on the velocity-pressure relationship of flowing fluids for operation.

Orifice Flow Meter 

The orifice element is typically a thin, circular metal disk held between two flanges in the fluid stream. The center of the disk is formed with a specific-size and shape hole, depending on the expected fluid flow parameters (e.g., pressure and flow range). As the fluid flows through the orifice, the restriction creates a pressure differential upstream and downstream of the orifice proportional to the fluid flow rate. This differential pressure is measured and a flow rate calculated based on the differential pressure and fluid properties.

Venturi Flow Meter

The venturi flow meter takes advantage of the velocity- pressure relationship when a section of pipe gently converges to a small-diameter area (called a throat) before diverging back to the full pipe diameter. The benefit of the venturi flow meter over the orifice flow meter lies in the reduced pressure loss experienced by the fluid.

Annubar Flow Meter

The annubar flow meter (a variation of the simple pitot tube) also takes advantage of the velocity-pressure relationship of flowing fluids. The device causing the change in pressure is a pipe inserted into the natural gas flow.

VELOCITY

There are multiple types of velocity meters: turbine flow meter, vortex-shedding flow meter, and fluid oscillation flow meter. Velocity meters determine fluid flow by measuring a representation of the flow directly. Because the fluid’s velocity is measured (i.e., not the square-root relationship to determine velocity as with differential pressure meters), velocity meters can have better accuracy and usually have better turndown ratios than other meter types.

Turbine Flow Meter

A multi-blade impellor-like device is located in, and horizontal to, the fluid stream in a turbine flow meter. As the fluid passes through the turbine blades, the impellor rotates at a speed related to the fluid’s velocity. Blade speed can be sensed by a number of techniques including magnetic pick-up, mechanical gears, and photocell. The pulses generated as a result of blade rotation are directly proportional to fluid velocity, and hence flow rate.

Vortex-Shedding Flow Meter

A vortex-shedding flow meter senses flow disturbances around a stationary body (called a bluff body) positioned in the middle of the fluid stream. As fluid flows around the bluff body, eddies or vortices are created downstream; the frequencies of these vortices are directly proportional to the fluid velocity.

Fluid Oscillation Flow Meter

A fluid oscillation flow meter uses sensor technology to detect gas oscillations, which corresponds to the flow rate through the meters internal throat design.

For more information on any flow measurement requirement, visit Thompson Equipment (TECO) at http://www.teco-inc.com or call 800-528-8997 for immediate service,

Flow Media Identification in Process Piping

Fluid process control operations use pipes to transport materials over distances. Other processing facilities may also employ piping as a conduit to move a variety of other materials. Factory piping networks move liquids and gasses from process point to process point. An accurate indication of the nature and type of substance or material within a pipe, direction of flow, or other pertinent information, contributes to maintaining a safe and effective operation. Pipe marking and color coding should follow recognized applicable standards that are well known to plant operators. 

With pipe marking following a standardized system, employees and contractors on site, and with knowledge of the applicable marking system, are able to easily understand the different colors and their relation to the facility functions. However, some pipes, such as ammonia refrigeration pipes, have their own, independent standards which can be integrated alongside other identifications. Similarly, pipes used in marine environments bear their own standards, along with specific color combinations and banding. Those two sets of standards comply with the hallmarks of general pipe labeling, coloring and identification, including color coding, simple identification of the pipes content, and the inclusion of an accompanying symbol indicating the direction of the flow. For example, a green pipe with white lettering generally means the adjoining pipe contains potable water, potentially for cooling, boiler feeding, or sinks. All combustible fluids are paired with brown labels and white lettering. In addition to the number of predetermined combinations, user defined pipe color combinations are possible so that businesses may plot certain pipes which do not immediately fit within the preset. These can present a challenge, though, due to the fact that user defined color options will require additional instruction to employees and contractors because of their uniqueness to specific businesses. 

The labels used to identify pipes have their own specifications for size and lettering dimensions. Size requirements for the labels allow for companies to create custom labels while still adhering to universal conditions. The size of the pipe markings is related to the pipe diameter, and meant to ensure visibility. An easy way for businesses to translate pipe labels for their employees is to develop and display color code charts. An employee not immediately familiar with the realm of pipe labeling can quickly reference an accurate, accessible chart before taking any action. The maximization of facility safety relies on ensuring that the pipe color labels are visible, unobstructed, and well-lit. Labels placed every 25-50', especially on a pipe that changes direction, near an access point, or near an end point, place information at important junctures on the pipeline. Clearly understanding both the substance a pipe is carrying and, additionally, how individual pipes constitute the facility network is a key way to mitigate potential process hazards.

Blog post courtesy of Thompson Equipment.

Rack and Pinion Pneumatic Valve Actuators

Rack and pinion actuator
(courtesy of Jamesbury)

There are three primary categories of valve actuators commonly used valve automation:

• Pneumatic
• Hydraulic
• Electric

Pneumatic actuators can be further categorized as:

• Scotch yoke design
• Vane design
• Rack and pinion actuators (the subject of this post).

Animation of how rack
and pinion gears convert linear
motion to rotational motion.

Rack and pinion actuators provide a rotational movement designed to open and close quarter-turn valves such as ball, butterfly, or plug valves and also for operating industrial or commercial dampers.

The rotational movement of a rack and pinion actuator is accomplished via linear motion and two gears. A circular gear, referred to a “pinion” engages the teeth of a linear gear “bar” referred to as the “rack”.

Pneumatic actuators use pistons that are attached to the rack. As air or spring power is applied the to pistons, the rack is “pushed” inward or “pulled” outward. This linear movement is transferred to the rotary pinion gear (in both directions) providing bi-directional rotation.

Actuator rack & pinion gear configuration

Rack and pinion actuators pistons can be pressurized with air, gas, or oil to provide the linear the movement that spins the pinion gear. To rotate the pinion gear in the opposite direction, the air, gas, or oil must be redirected to the other sides of the piston, or use coil springs as the energy source for rotation. Rack and pinion actuators using springs are referred to as "spring-return actuators". Actuators that rely on opposite side pressurization of the rack are referred to as "direct acting".

Most actuators are designed for 100-degree travel with clockwise and counterclockwise travel adjustment for open and closed positions. World standard ISO mounting pad are commonly available to provide ease and flexibility in direct valve installation.

NAMUR mounting dimensions on actuator pneumatic port connections and on actuator accessory holes and drive shaft are also common design features to make adding pilot valves and accessories more convenient.

Pneumatic pneumatic rack and pinion actuators are compact and save space. They are reliable, durable and provide a good life cycle. There are many brands of rack and pinion actuators on the market, all with subtle differences in piston seals, shaft seals, spring design and body designs.

For more information on any pneumatic or electric valve automation project, visit this link or call TECO at 800-528-8997.

Measuring Flow Using Differential Pressure

There are several types of flow instruments that rely on the Bernoulli's principle (an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure), that measure the differential pressure across the high pressure side and low pressure side of a constriction.

Many industrial processes adapt this principle and measure the differential pressure across an orifice plate or a Venturi tube to measure and control flow.

An orifice plate is a plate with a hole through it. When placed in the pipe, it constricts the flow and provides a pressure differential across the constriction which can be correlated to the flow rate.

A Venturi tube constricts the flow in the same fashion, but instead a plate with a hole, it uses a pipe or tube with a reduced inner diameter to create the flow differential.

This video provides an excellent basic understanding of how this is accomplished. For more information on any type of industrial flow measuring device, visit the TECO website o call 800-528-8997.